The Impact of Attitudes, Beliefs, and Cognitive Reflection on the Development of Critical Thinking Skills in Online Students

Authors

  • Boban Simonovic
  • Katia Vione
  • Dean Fido
  • Edward Stupple
  • James Martin
  • Richard Clarke

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.24059/olj.v26i2.2725

Keywords:

Online learning

Abstract

Learning and development of critical thinking (CT) skills in higher education is essential for academic achievement. The following experiment is the first to examine the effect of online student’s perceptions and attitudes towards CT across dimensions of confidence, valuing, misconceptions, cognitive reflection, and authors writing. Furthermore, a CT intervention was developed, and the effects of the intervention examined with an aim to help students improve their grade point average. The analyses demonstrated that student’s confidence and cognitive reflection predict academic achievement. Moreover, the online CT intervention was associated with improved students’ CT attitudes, skills, and academic performance. Significant interactions were observed between time (pre- and post-intervention) and intervention in cognitive reflection, confidence, beliefs, and attitudes related to CT, and student grade point average (GPA, as a measure of student’s performance on online modules). It was concluded that the CT can be taught and that an intervention based on “how to think” rather than a “what to think” mixed approach can help online students develop CT, strengthen their confidence in CT and help students improve their academic performance in an online setting.

References

Abrami, P. C., Bernard, R. M., Borokhovski, E., Wade, A., Surkes, M. A., Tamim, R., & Zhang, D. (2008). Instructional interventions affecting critical thinking skills and dispositions: A stage 1 meta-analysis. Review of Educational Research, 78(4), 1102-1134. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654308326084

Abrami, P. C., Bernard, R. M., Borokhovski, E., Waddington, D. I., Wade, A., & Persson, T. (2015). “Strategies for Teaching Students to Think Critically: A Meta-Analysis.” Review of Educational Research, 85(2), 275–314. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654314551063

Abasi, A.R., Akbari, N., & Graves, B. (2006). Discourse appropriation, construction of identities, and the complex issue of plagiarism: ESL students writing in graduate school. Journal of Second Language Writing, 15(2) 102–17. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0261444814000056

Ackerman, R., & Thompson, V. A. (2017). Meta-reasoning: Monitoring and control of thinking and reasoning. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 21(8), 607-617. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2017.05.004

Alvarez-Ortiz, C. (2007). Does philosophy improve critical thinking skills? (Master’s thesis). Australia: University of Melbourne.

Bernard, R. M., Zhang, D., Abrami, P. C., Sicoly, F., Borokhovski, E., & Surkes, M. (2008). Exploring the structure of the Watson-Glaser Critical Thinking Appraisal: One scale or many subscales? Thinking Skills and Creativity, 3, 15–22. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tsc.2007.11.001

Beyer, B. (2008). How to teach thinking skills in social studies and history. Social Studies, 99(5), 196-201. https://doi.org/10.3200/TSSS.99.5.196-201

Bonnefon, J. F. (2016). The pros and cons of identifying critical thinking with system 2 processing. Topoi, 1–7. DOI:10.1007/S11245-016-9375-2

Butler, H. A., Pentoney, C., & Bong, M. P. (2017). Predicting real-world outcomes: Critical thinking ability is a better predictor of life decisions than intelligence. Thinking Skills and Creativity, 25, 38-46. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tsc.2017.06.005

Cacioppo, J. T., Petty, R. E., & Kao, C. F. (1984). The efficient assessment of need for cognition. Journal of Personality Assessment, 48, 306–307. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327752jpa4803_13

Campitelli, G., & Gerrans, P. (2014). Does the cognitive reflection test measure cognitive reflection? A mathematical modeling approach. Memory & Cognition, 42(3), 434-447. DOI: 10.3758/s13421-013-0367-9

Celuch, K., Black, G., & Warthan, B. (2009). Student self-identity as a critical thinker. Journal of Marketing Education, 31, 31–39. https://doi.org/10.1177/0273475308324088

Cheung, K. Y. F., Stupple, E. J. N., & Elander, J. (2015). Development and validation of the Student Attitudes and Beliefs about Authorship Scale: A psychometrically robust measure of authorial identity. Studies in Higher Education, 1–18. https://doi.org/10.1080/03075079.2015.1034673

Cloete, M. B. (2019). The impact of an integrated assessment on the critical thinking skills of first-year university students. Accounting Education, 27(5). https://doi.org/10.1080/09639284.2018.1501717

Dunn, D. S., Halonen, J. S., & Smith, R. A. (Eds.). (2008). Teaching critical thinking in psychology: A handbook of best practices. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, (Chapter 4).

Duro, E., Elander, J., Maratos, F. A., Stupple, E. J., & Aubeeluck, A. (2013). In search of critical thinking in psychology: an exploration of student and lecturer understandings in higher education. Psychology Learning & Teaching, 12(3), 275-281. https://doi.org/10.2304/plat.2013.12.3.275

Dwyer, C. P., Hogan, M. J., & Stewart, I. (2012). An evaluation of argument mapping as a method of enhancing critical thinking performance in e-learning environments. Metacognition and Learning, 7, 219–244. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11409-012-9092-1

Dwyer, C. P., Hogan, M. J., & Stewart, I. (2014). An integrated critical thinking framework for the 21st century. Thinking Skills and Creativity, 12, 43–52. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tsc.2013.12.004

Elander, J., Pittam, G., Lusher, J., Fox, P., & Payne, N. (2010). Evaluation of an intervention to help students avoid unintentional plagiarism by improving their authorial identity. Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education, 35 (2), 157–171. https://doi.org/10.1080/02602930802687745

Ennis, R. H. (1985). A logical basis for measuring critical thinking skills. Educational Leadership, 43 (2), 44. Retrieved from http://www.ascd.org/ASCD/pdf/journals/ed_lead/el_198510_ennis.pdf

Ennis, R. H. (2016). “Critical Thinking Across the Curriculum: A Vision.” Topoi 37 (1): 1–20. DOI: 10.1007/s11245-016-9401-4

Entwistle, N., Tait, H., & McCune., V. (2000). Patterns of response to an approaches to studying inventory across contrasting groups and contexts. European Journal of Psychology of Education, 15, 33–48. DOI: 10.1007/BF03173165

Evans, J. St. B. T., & Stanovich, K. E. (2013). Dual-process theories of higher cognition: Advancing the debate. Perspectives in Psychological Science, 8, 223–241. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691612460685

Facione, P. A. (1990). Critical Thinking: A Statement of Expert Consensus for Purposes of Educational Assessment and Instruction. Millbrae, CA: California Academic Press (ERIC document ED 315-423). Retrieved from https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED315423.pdf

Facione, P. A., Facione, N. C., & Giancarlo, C. (1992). The California critical thinking skills test. California Academic Press.

Facione, P. A. (2000). The disposition toward critical thinking: Its character, measurement, and relationship to critical thinking. Informal Logic, 20(1), 61–84. https://doi.org/10.22329/il.v20i1.2254

Facione, P.A., Facione, N.C., & Giancarlo, C.A. (2000). The disposition toward critical thinking: Its character, measurement, and relationship to critical thinking skill. Informal Logic, 20(1), 61-84.Retrievied from https://www.insightassessment.com/wp-content/uploads/ia/pdf/J_Infrml_Ppr-_2000-Disp-Skls.pdf

Facione, P. A., & Facione, N. C. (2001). Analyzing explanations for seemingly irrational choices: Linking argument analysis and cognitive science. International Journal of Applied Philosophy, 15(2), 267–286. Retrieved from https://insightassessment.com/wp-content/uploads/ia/pdf/IJAP_Analysis_Paper.pdf

Facione, P. A. (2013). Critical thinking what it is and why it counts. Retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Peter_Facione/publication/251303244_Critical_Thinking_What_It_Is_and_Why_It_Counts/links/5849b49608aed5252bcbe531/Critical-Thinking-What-It-Is-and-Why-It-Counts.pdf

Fong, C. J., Kim, Y., Davis, C. W., Hoang, T., & Kim, Y. W. (2017). A meta-analysis on critical thinking and community college student achievement. Thinking Skills and Creativity, 26, 71-83. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tsc.2017.06.002

Frederick, S. (2005). Cognitive reflection and decision making. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 19, 25-42. DOI: 10.1257/089533005775196732

Gambrill, E. (2006). Evidence-based practice and policy: Choices ahead. Research on Social Work Practice, 16(3), 338–357. https://doi.org/10.1177/1049731505284205

Guiller, J., Durndell, A., & Ross, A. (2008). Peer interaction and critical thinking: face-to-face or online discussion? Learning and Instruction, 18, 187-200. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2007.03.001

Halpern, D. F. (1993). Assessing effectiveness of critical thinking instruction. The Journal of General Education, 42(4), 238-254.

Halpern, D. F. (2003). Thought and knowledge: An introduction to critical thinking (4th ed.). New Jersey: Laurence Erlbaum Associates. https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1099-0720(199704)11:2<179::AID-ACP453>3.0.CO;2-S

Halpern, D (2014) Critical Thinking across the Curriculum: A Brief Edition of Thought and Knowledge. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315805719

Heijltjes, A., Van Gog, T., Leppink, J., & Paas, F. (2014). Improving critical thinking: Effects of dispositions and instructions on economics students’ reasoning skills. Learning and Instruction, 29,31-42. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2013.07.003

Heijltjes, A., Van Gog, T., Leppink, J., & Paas, F. (2015). Unraveling the effects of critical thinking instructions, practice, and self-explanation on students’ reasoning performance. Instructional Science, 43, 487-506. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11251-015-9347-8

Huber, C. R., & Kuncel, N. R. (2016). Does college teach critical thinking? A meta-analysis. Review of Educational Research, 86(2), 431-468. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654315605917

Janssen, E. M., Meulendijks, W., Mainhard, T., Verkoeijen, P.P.J.L., Heijltjes, A.E.G., van Peppen, V., van Gog, T. (2019). Identifying characteristics associated with higher education teachers’ Cognitive Reflection Test performance and their attitudes towards teaching critical thinking. Teaching and Teacher Education, 84, 139-149. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2019.05.008

Hattie, J. (2008). Visible Learning: A Synthesis of Over 800 Meta-Analyses Relating to Achievement. Routledge Press.

Hussin, W. N. T. W., Harun, J., & Shukor, N. A. (2019). Online Interaction in Social Learning Environment towards Critical Thinking Skill: A Framework. Journal of Technology and Science Education, 9(1), 4-12. http://dx.doi.org/10.3926/jotse.544

Kahneman, D., & Tversky, A. (1984). Choices, values, and frames. American Psychologist, 39, 341–350. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.39.4.341

Kahneman, D. (2011). Thinking, fast and slow. New York, NY: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, (Chapter 1).

Kember, D., Leung, D., Jones, A., & Loke, A. Y. (2000). Development of a questionnaire to measure the level of reflective thinking. Assessment and Evaluation in Higher Education, 25(4), 380–395. https://doi.org/10.1080/713611442

Klaczynski, P. A. (2014). Heuristics and biases: interactions among numeracy, ability, and reflectiveness predict normative responding. Frontiers in Psychology, 5, 665. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00665

Kraft, N. P. (2002). Teacher research as a way to engage in critical reflection: A case study. Reflective Practice, 3, 175–189. https://doi.org/10.1080/14623940220142325

Kuiper, R. (2002). Enhancing metacognition through the reflective use of self-regulated learning strategies. The Journal of Continuing Education in Nursing, 33(2), 78–87. PMID: 11916343

Lamont, P. (2020). The construction of “critical thinking”: Between how we think and what we believe. History of Psychology. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1037/hop0000145

Liu, O. L., Frankel, L., & Roohr, K. C. (2014). “Assessing Critical Thinking in Higher Education: Current State and Directions for Next-generation Assessment.” ETS Research Report Series, i–23. https://doi.org/10.1002/ets2.12009

MacKnight, C. B. (2000). Teaching critical thinking through online discussions. Educause Quarterly, 23(4), 38–41. Retrieved from http://eac595b.pbworks.com/f/macknight+2000+questions[1].pdf

Maurino, P. S. M. (2007). Looking for critical thinking in online threaded discussions. Journal of Educational Technology Systems, 35(3), 241-260. https://www.learntechlib.org/p/72184/.

McGuinness, C. (2013). Teaching thinking: Learning how to think. In Presented at the Psychological Society of Ireland and British Psychological Association’s Public Lecture Series Galway, Ireland, 6th March.

Morsanyi, K., Busdraghi, C., & Primi, C. (2014). Mathematical anxiety is linked to reduced cognitive reflection: a potential road from discomfort in the mathematics classroom to susceptibility to biases. Behavioral and Brain Functions, 10(1), 31. DOI: 10.1186/1744-9081-10-31

Osborne, R., Dunne, E., & Farrand, P. (2013). Integrating technologies into ‘authentic’ assessment design: An affordance approach. Research in Learning Technology, 21,1–18. https://doi.org/10.3402/rlt.v21i0.21986

Parker S, Mayner L, Michael Gillham D. (2015) E-learning for critical thinking: Using nominal focus group method to inform software content and design. Nursing and Midwifery Studies, 4(4), e30471. 10.17795/nmsjournal30471

Pask, G. (1988). Learning strategies, teaching strategies, and conceptual or learning style. R.R. Schmeck (Ed.), Learning strategies and learning styles, Plenum Press, New York (1988), pp. 83-100.Retrieved from https://www.pangaro.com/pask/pask-in-schmeck%20on%20learning-styles.pdf

Phan, H. P. (2006). Examination of student learning approaches, reflective thinking, and epistemological beliefs: A latent variables approach. Journal of Research in Educational Psychology, 4(3), 577–610.

Puig, B., Blanco-Anaya, P., Bargiela, I. M., & Crujeiras-Pérez, B. (2019). A systematic review on critical thinking intervention studies in higher education across professional fields. Studies in Higher Education, 44 (5), 860-869. https://doi.org/10.1080/03075079.2019.1586333

Richardson, J., & Ice, P. (2010). Investigating students' level of critical thinking across instructional strategies in online discussions. Internet and Higher Education, 13, 52-59. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.iheduc.2009.10.009

Ross, D., Loeffler, K., Schipper, S., Vandermeer, B., Allan, G. M. (2013). Do scores on three commonly used measures of critical thinking correlate with academic success of health professions trainees? A systematic review and meta-analysis. Academic Medicine, 88(5), 724-734. doi: 10.1097/ACM.0b013e31828b0823

Author et al., (2018).

Solon, T. (2007). Generic critical thinking infusion and course content learning in introductory psychology. Journal of Instructional Psychology, 34(2), 95–109.

Stanovich, K. E., & West, R. F. (1997). Reasoning independently of prior belief and individual differences in actively open minded thinking. Journal of Educational Psychology, 89, 342–357. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.89.2.342

Stanovich, K. E., & West, R. F. (2007). Natural myside bias is independent of cognitive ability. Thinking & Reasoning, 13,

–247. https://doi.org/10.1080/13546780600780796

Stanovich, K. E. (2011). Rationality and the reflective mind. New York, NY: Oxford University Press, (Chapter 3).

Stanovich, K. E., West, R. F., & Toplak, M. E. (2016). The Rationality Quotient (RQ): Toward a test of rational thinking. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, (Chapter 2).

Stanovich, K. E. (2018). Miserliness in human cognition: the interaction of detection, override and mindware. Thinking and Reasoning. 423-444. https://doi.org/10.1080/13546783.2018.1459314

Stupple. E. J. N, Maratos, F. A., Elander, J., Hunt, T. E., Cheung, K. Y.F., Aubeeluck, A. V. (2017). Development of the Critical Thinking Toolkit (CriTT): A measure of student attitudes and beliefs about critical thinking. Thinking Skills and Creativity, 23, 91–100. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tsc.2016.11.007

Thompson, C. (2011). Critical Thinking across the Curriculum: Process over Output. International Journal of Humanities and Social Science, 1 (9), 1-7. Retrieved from http://www.ijhssnet.com/journals/Vol._1_No._9_Special_Issue_July_2011/1.pdf

Thomson, K. S., & Oppenheimer, D. M. (2016). Investigating an alternate form of the cognitive reflection test. Judgment and Decision making, 11(1), 99.

Tiruneh, D. T., Verburgh, A. & Elen, J. (2014). Effectiveness of critical thinking instruction in higher education: a systematic review of intervention studies. Higher Education Studies, 4(1), 1–17. DOI:10.5539/hes.v4n1p1

Toplak, M. E., West, R. F., & Stanovich, K. E. (2014). Assessing miserly information processing: an expansion of the Cognitive Reflection Test. Thinking and Reasoning,20, 147–168. https://doi.org/10.1080/13546783.2013.844729

Tsui, L. (2002). Fostering critical thinking through effective pedagogy. Research in Higher Education, 40(2), 740-763. https://doi.org/10.1080/00221546.2002.11777179

Tversky, A. & Kahneman, D. (1983) Extensional versus intuitive reasoning: The conjunction fallacy in probability judgment. Psychological Review, 90(4), 293– 315. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.90.4.293

Van Peppen, L. M., Verkoeijen, P. P. J. L., Heijltjes, A. E. G., Janssen, E. M., Koopmans, D., & van Gog, T. (2018). Effects of self-explaining on learning and transfer of critical thinking skills. Frontiers in Education, 3. https://doi.org/10.3389/feduc.2018.00100

Watson, G., Glaser, E. M. (1964). Watson-Glaser Critical Thinking Appraisal Manual: Forms YM and ZM. New York: Harcourt, Brace, and World.

West, R. F., Toplak, M. E., & Stanovich, K. E. (2008). Heuristics and biases as measures of critical thinking: Associations with cognitive ability and thinking dispositions. Journal of Educational Psychology, 100(4), 930– 941. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0012842

Downloads

Published

2022-06-01

Issue

Vol. 26 No. 2 (2022)

Section

Empirical Studies

License

As a condition of publication, the author agrees to apply the Creative Commons – Attribution International 4.0 (CC-BY) License to OLJ articles. See: https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

This licence allows anyone to reproduce OLJ articles at no cost and without further permission as long as they attribute the author and the journal. This permission includes printing, sharing and other forms of distribution.

Author(s) hold copyright in their work, and retain publishing rights without restrictions