Tracking Self-Regulated Learning Strategies in Blended Learning: A Digital Trace Approach
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.24059/olj.v30i1.4860Keywords:
self-regulated learning, digital traces, blended learningAbstract
This study examined digital traces in the form of clicks on Learning Management System (LMS) modules to infer and monitor students’ Self-Regulated Learning (SRL) strategies in a blended learning environment. Digital traces were aligned with students’ responses on the A-SRL questionnaire (Magno, 2010), and these findings were further triangulated through student interviews. The results suggest that clicks on LMS modules containing theoretical material and gradebook indicate students’ use of a single corresponding SRL strategy and may serve as a good indicator of SRL behavior, while other digital traces relate to multiple strategies at once and lack a singular interpretation. Additionally, it was found that students in blended courses may use SRL strategies outside of the LMS. The study offers practical implications for instructional designers and practitioners seeking to support SRL in blended learning environments.
References
Anthonysamy, L., Koo, A.-C., & Hew, S.-H. (2020). Self-regulated learning strategies and non-academic outcomes in higher education blended learning environments: A one decade review. Education and Information Technologies, 25(5), 3677–3704. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-020-10134-2
Antonio Perez-Alvarez, R., Maldonado-Mahauad, J., Sharma, K., Sapunar-Opazo, D., & Perez-Sanagustin, M. (2020). Characterizing learners’ engagement in MOOCs: an observational case study using the NoteMyProgress tool for supporting self-regulation. IEEE Transactions on Learning Technologies, 13(4), 676–688. https://doi.org/10.1109/TLT.2020.3003220
Azevedo, R., & Hadwin, A. F. (2005). Scaffolding self-regulated learning and metacognition—Implications for the design of computer-based scaffolds. Instructional Science, 33(5–6), 367–379. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11251-005-1272-9
Baker, R., Xu, D., Park, J., Yu, R., Li, Q., Cung, B., Fischer, C., Rodriguez, F., Warschauer, M., & Smyth, P. (2020). The benefits and caveats of using clickstream data to understand student self-regulatory behaviors: Opening the black box of learning processes. International Journal of Educational Technology in Higher Education, 17(1), 13. https://doi.org/10.1186/s41239-020-00187-1
Bernacki, M. L., Byrnes, J. P., & Cromley, J. G. (2012). The effects of achievement goals and self-regulated learning behaviors on reading comprehension in technology-enhanced learning environments. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 37(2), 148–161. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2011.12.001
Bjork, R. A., Dunlosky, J., & Kornell, N. (2013). Self-regulated learning: Beliefs, techniques, and illusions. Annual Review of Psychology, 64(1), 417–444. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-113011-143823
Boekaerts, M. (1999). Motivated learning: Studying student situation transactional units. European Journal of Psychology of Education, 14(1), 41–55. https://doi.org/10.1007/bf03173110
Bouchet, F., Harley, J. M., Trevors, G. J., & Azevedo, R. (2013). Clustering and profiling students according to their interactions with an intelligent tutoring system fostering self-regulated learning. Journal of Educational Data Mining, 5(1), 104–146. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.3554614
Broadbent, J. (2017). Comparing online and blended learner’s self-regulated learning strategies and academic performance. The Internet and Higher Education, 33, 24–32. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.iheduc.2017.01.004
Broadbent, J., & Poon, W. L. (2015). Self-regulated learning strategies & academic achievement in online higher education learning environments: A systematic review. The Internet and Higher Education, 27, 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.iheduc.2015.04.007
Broadbent, J., Sharman, S., Panadero, E., & Fuller-Tyszkiewicz, M. (2021). How does self-regulated learning influence formative assessment and summative grade? Comparing online and blended learners. The Internet and Higher Education, 50, 100805. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.iheduc.2021.100805
Butler, D. L., & Winne, P. H. (1995). Feedback and self-regulated learning: A theoretical synthesis. Review of Educational Research, 65, 245–281. https://doi.org/10.2307/1170684
Cerezo, R., Bogarín, A., Esteban, M., & Romero, C. (2020). Process mining for self-regulated learning assessment in e-learning. Journal of Computing in Higher Education, 32(1), 74–88. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12528-019-09225-y
Crompton, H., Bernacki, M., & Greene, J. A. (2020). Psychological foundations of emerging technologies for teaching and learning in higher education. Current Opinion in Psychology, 36, 101–105. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2020.04.011
Davis, D., Chen, G., Van Der Zee, T., Hauff, C., & Houben, G. (2016). Retrieval practice and study planning in MOOCs: Exploring classroom-based self-regulated learning strategies at scale. Lecture notes in computer science (pp. 57–71). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-45153-4_5
Delen, E., Liew, J., & Willson, V. (2014). Effects of interactivity and instructional scaffolding on learning: Self-regulation in online video-based environments. Computers & Education, 78, 312–320. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2014.06.018
Dignath, C., & Büttner, G. (2008). Components of fostering self-regulated learning among students. A meta-analysis on intervention studies at primary and secondary school level. Metacognition and Learning, 3(3), 231–264. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11409-008-9029-x
Du, J., Hew, K. F., & Liu, L. (2023). What can online traces tell us about students’ self-regulated learning? A systematic review of online trace data analysis. Computers & Education, 201, 104828. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2023.104828
Eggers, J. H., Oostdam, R., & Voogt, J. (2021). Self-regulation strategies in blended learning environments in higher education: A systematic review. Australasian Journal of Educational Technology, 175–192. https://doi.org/10.14742/ajet.6453
Fan, Y., Matcha, W., Uzir, N. A., Wang, Q., & Gašević, D. (2021). Learning analytics to reveal links between learning design and self-regulated learning. International Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education, 31(4), 980–1021. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40593-021-00249-z
Fan, Y., Rakovic, M., van der Graaf, J., Lim, L., Singh, S., Moore, J., Molenaar, I., Bannert, M., & Gašević, D. (2023). Towards a fuller picture: Triangulation and integration of the measurement of self-regulated learning based on trace and think aloud data. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 39(4), 1303–1324. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcal.12801
Fan, Y., Saint, J., Singh, S., Jovanovic, J., & Gašević, D. (2021). A learning analytic approach to unveiling self-regulatory processes in learning tactics. LAK21: 11th International Learning Analytics and Knowledge Conference, 184–195. https://doi.org/10.1145/3448139.3448211
Halem, N. van, Klaveren, C. van, Drachsler, H., Schmitz, M., & Cornelisz, I. (2020). Tracking patterns in self-regulated learning using students’ self-reports and online trace data. Frontline Learning Research, 8(3), Article 3. https://doi.org/10.14786/flr.v8i3.497
Han, F., & Ellis, R. A. (2023). Self-reported and digital-trace measures of computer science students’ self-regulated learning in blended course designs. Education and Information Technologies, 28(10), 13253–13268. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-023-11698-5
Huang, L., & Lajoie, S. P. (2021). Process analysis of teachers’ self-regulated learning patterns in technological pedagogical content knowledge development. Computers & Education, 166, 104169. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2021.104169
Jansen, R. S., van Leeuwen, A., Janssen, J., Conijn, R., & Kester, L. (2020). Supporting learners’ self-regulated learning in Massive Open Online Courses. Computers & Education, 146, 103771. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2019.103771
Kizilcec, R. F., Pérez-Sanagustín, M., & Maldonado, J. J. (2017). Self-regulated learning strategies predict learner behavior and goal attainment in Massive Open Online Courses. Computers & Education, 104, 18–33. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2016.10.001
Lan, M., Hou, X., Qi, X., & Mattheos, N. (2019). Self-regulated learning strategies in world’s first MOOC in implant dentistry. European Journal of Dental Education, 23(3), 278–285. https://doi.org/10.1111/eje.12428
Lee, D., Watson, S. L., & Watson, W. R. (2019). Systematic literature review on self-regulated learning in massive open online courses. Australasian Journal of Educational Technology, 35(1). https://doi.org/10.14742/ajet.3749
Magno, C. (2010). Assessing academic self-regulated learning among Filipino college students: The factor structure and item fit. The International Journal of Educational and Psychological Assessment, 5. https://papers.ssrn.com/abstract=2287208
Maldonado-Mahauad, J., Pérez-Sanagustín, M., Kizilcec, R. F., Morales, N., & Munoz-Gama, J. (2018). Mining theory-based patterns from Big data: Identifying self-regulated learning strategies in Massive Open Online Courses. Computers in Human Behavior, 80, 179–196. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2017.11.011
Matcha, W., Gašević, D., Uzir, N. A., Jovanović, J., Pardo, A., Lim, L., Maldonado-Mahauad, J., Gentili, S., Pérez-Sanagustín, M., & Tsai, Y.-S. (2020). Analytics of learning strategies: Role of course design and delivery modality. Journal of Learning Analytics, 7(2), Article 2. https://doi.org/10.18608/jla.2020.72.3
Milikić, N., Gašević, D., & Jovanović, J. (2020). Measuring effects of technology-enabled mirroring scaffolds on self-regulated learning. IEEE Transactions on Learning Technologies, 13(1), 150–163. https://doi.org/10.1109/TLT.2018.2885743
Onah, D. F. O., Pang, E. L. L., & Sinclair, J. E. (2021). Investigating self-regulation in the context of a blended learning computing course. The International Journal of Information and Learning Technology, 39(1), 50–69. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJILT-04-2021-0059
Panadero, E. (2017). A review of self-regulated learning: Six models and four directions for research. Frontiers in Psychology, 8. https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00422
Pérez-Sanagustín, M., Sapunar-Opazo, D., Pérez-Álvarez, R., Hilliger, I., Bey, A., Maldonado-Mahauad, J., & Baier, J. (2021). A MOOC-based flipped experience: Scaffolding SRL strategies improves learners’ time management and engagement. Computer Applications in Engineering Education, 29(4), 750–768. https://doi.org/10.1002/cae.22337
Pintrich, P. R., Smith, D. A. F., Garcia, T., & McKeachie, W. J. (1991). A manual for the use of the Motivated Strategies for Learning Questionnaire (MSLQ) (Tech. Report No. 91-B-004). Board of Regents, University of Michigan. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED338122
Pintrich, P. R. (2000). The role of goal orientation in self-regulated learning. In M. Boekaerts, P. R. Pintrich, & M. Zeidner (Eds.), Handbook of Self-Regulation (pp. 451–502). Academic Press. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-012109890-2/50043-3
Pintrich, P. R., & De Groot, E. V. (1990). Motivational and self-regulated learning components of classroom academic performance. Journal of Educational Psychology, 82(1), 33–40. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.82.1.33
Puzziferro, M. (2008). Online technologies self-efficacy and self-regulated learning as predictors of final grade and satisfaction in college-level online courses. American Journal of Distance Education, 22(2), 72–89. https://doi.org/10.1080/08923640802039024
Rafaeli, A., Ashtar, S., & Altman, D. (2019). Digital traces: New data, resources, and tools for psychological-science research. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 28(6), 560–566. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721419861410
Rodrigues, R. L., Ramos, J. L. C., Silva, J. C. S., Dourado, R. A., & Gomes, A. S. (2019). Forecasting students’ performance through self-regulated learning behavioral analysis. International Journal of Distance Education Technologies (IJDET), 17(3), 52–74. https://doi.org/10.4018/IJDET.2019070104
Rovers, S. F. E., Clarebout, G., Savelberg, H. H. C. M., de Bruin, A. B. H., & van Merriënboer, J. J. G. (2019). Granularity matters: Comparing different ways of measuring self-regulated learning. Metacognition and Learning, 14(1), 1–19. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11409-019-09188-6
Saint, J., Fan, Y., Gašević, D., & Pardo, A. (2022). Temporally-focused analytics of self-regulated learning: A systematic review of literature. Computers and Education: Artificial Intelligence, 3, 100060. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.caeai.2022.100060
Saint, J., Gašević, D., Matcha, W., Uzir, N. A., & Pardo, A. (2020a). Combining analytic methods to unlock sequential and temporal patterns of self-regulated learning. Proceedings of the Tenth International Conference on Learning Analytics & Knowledge, 402–411. https://doi.org/10.1145/3375462.3375487
Saint, J., Whitelock-Wainwright, A., Gasevic, D., & Pardo, A. (2020b). Trace-SRL: A framework for analysis of microlevel processes of Self-Regulated Learning from trace data. IEEE Transactions on Learning Technologies, 13(4), 861–877. https://doi.org/10.1109/tlt.2020.3027496
Schunk, D. (2005). Self-regulated learning: The educational legacy of Paul R. Pintrich. Educational Psychologist—EDUC PSYCHOL, 40, 85–94. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15326985ep4002_3
Siadaty, M., Gašević, D., & Hatala, M. (2016). Measuring the impact of technological scaffolding interventions on micro-level processes of self-regulated workplace learning. Computers in Human Behavior, 59, 469–482. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2016.02.025
Singh, J., Steele, K., & Singh, L. (2021). Combining the best of online and face-to-face learning: Hybrid and blended learning approach for COVID-19, post vaccine, and post-pandemic world. Journal of Educational Technology Systems, 50(2), 140–171. https://doi.org/10.1177/00472395211047865
Winne, P. H., & Hadwin, A. F. (1998). Studying as self-regulated learning. In D. J. Hacker, J. Dunlosky, & A. C. Graesser (Eds.), Metacognition in educational theory and practice (pp. 277–304). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers.
Winne, P. H. (2010). Improving measurements of self-regulated learning. Educational Psychologist, 45(4), 267–276. https://doi.org/10.1080/00461520.2010.517150
Winne, P. H. (2017). The trajectory of scholarship about self-regulated learning. Teachers College Record: The Voice of Scholarship in Education, 119(13), 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1177/016146811711901312
Wong, J., Khalil, M., Baars, M., de Koning, B. B., & Paas, F. (2019). Exploring sequences of learner activities in relation to self-regulated learning in a massive open online course. Computers & Education, 140, 103595. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2019.103595
Xu, Z., Zhao, Y., Liew, J., Zhou, X., & Kogut, A. (2023). Synthesizing research evidence on self-regulated learning and academic achievement in online and blended learning environments: A scoping review. Educational Research Review, 39, 100510. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2023.100510
Yang, T.-C., Chen, M. C., & Chen, S. Y. (2018). The influences of self-regulated learning support and prior knowledge on improving learning performance. Computers & Education, 126, 37–52. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2018.06.025
Ye, D., & Pennisi, S. (2022). Using trace data to enhance Students’ self-regulation: A learning analytics perspective. The Internet and Higher Education, 54, 100855. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.iheduc.2022.100855
Zhang, Z., Xu, Q., Koehler, A., & Newby, T. (2023). Comparing blended and online learners’ self-efficacy, self-regulation, and actual learning in the context of educational technology. Online Learning, 27(4), Article 4. https://doi.org/10.24059/olj.v27i4.4039
Zhou, M., & Winne, P. H. (2012). Modeling academic achievement by self-reported versus traced goal orientation. Learning and Instruction, 22(6), 413–419. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2012.03.004
Zimmerman, B. J. (1989). A social cognitive view of self-regulated academic learning. Journal of Educational Psychology, 81(3), 329–339. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.81.3.329
Zimmerman, B. J. (2000). Attaining self-regulation. In Handbook of self-regulation (pp. 13–39). Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-012109890-2/50031-7
Zimmerman, B. J. (2002). Becoming a self-regulated learner: An overview. Theory Into Practice, 41(2), 64–70. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15430421tip4102_2
Zimmerman, B. J., & Pons, M. M. (1986). Development of a structured interview for assessing student use of self-regulated learning strategies. American Educational Research Journal, 23(4), 614–628. https://doi.org/10.3102/00028312023004614
Downloads
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2025 Maxim Boitcov, Anastasiia Kapuza, Anna Gorbunova, Regina Sutarmina
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
As a condition of publication, the author agrees to apply the Creative Commons – Attribution International 4.0 (CC-BY) License to OLJ articles. See: https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.
This licence allows anyone to reproduce OLJ articles at no cost and without further permission as long as they attribute the author and the journal. This permission includes printing, sharing and other forms of distribution.
Author(s) hold copyright in their work, and retain publishing rights without restrictions
